Forms of Political Violence

Forms of Political Violence Nihad Safarli Political violence: revolutions and terrorism Political violence has become a part of a daily life of each person living on the Earth. Almost everyone- politicians, mass media, scientists, taxi drivers.and etc. is talking about this. In this paper I will analyze the reasons of its popularity by investigating its origins and the factors which trigger off political violence. Based on the theoretical framework created by the knowledge I’ve amassed before, mainly my paper is focused on two prevailing forms of political violence with what this term often is being associated –revolutions and terrorism. I will try to find out more precious definition of revolutions and clarify which historical events can be conceptualized as a revolution, also try to ascertain the main cause of terrorism. Theda Skocpol’s article â€Å"France, Russia, China: A Structural Analysis of Social Revolution† provided quite good definition of revolution , although in my opinion her study is so tightly squeezed that doesn’t fit to all cases in the history. I want to criticize Skocpol’s conceptualization of social revolutions .After reviewing the definitions given by S.Huntington and Lenin she combined the content of them and applied it for analysis of revolutions in particular states. According to the author, revolution is a very rapid and fundamental transformation of social conditions and class structures and can be achieved through uprising of the lower class. The main difference of social revolutions from other forms of conflicts and transforming processes is that they attended by class insurrection, political and social transformations in social structure. But even rebellions with the same characteristics cannot be considered as revolutions as they don’t aim to make structural changes. Skocpol used a comparative historical method, in order to analyze cautiously the history of some modern revolutions, use the data gathered from the cases to make generalizations. Limitation of this method is that it is good to compare only similar cases. For example, comparison of Russian and German revolutions could be appropriate as a lot of common factors had an impact on revolutions, such as forfeit of war. But for France war ended up with a victory and overall situation was different from Russia which makes difficult to compare French and Russian revolutions applying comparative method. Scokpol thought that trouble Russia felt during World War I caused the revolution as its economy couldn’t respond to such huge pressure yielded by military expenditure. But the main thing is not how â€Å"a boxer was punched, the main thing is how he will he be able to stand this† Not only rapid industrialization but also lack of capacity to respond to this rapid process, played an essential role. The challenging part of this definition is about the phrase- â€Å"very rapid†. The â€Å"blurred† part about social revolution word is due to vague starting point and the end. For instance, the Russian revolution: did it begin exactly in 1917? Or may be seeds of revolutions were spread before? For defining the paradigm of rapid change, we should know whether that revolution ended exactly in October 1917 or not? Main missing point here is that we don’t know during which period should structural transformation happen to be called revolution. Probably I can conclude that periods called revolutions, transformation happened much more rapid now carried the qualitative character. If we accept social revolutionas a fundamental transformation of society, we should define what is fundamental about it. The author mentioned it dimly: changes in the social structure, accompanied by class uprisings; second, political and social transformation.Butwhich changes in the social structure does she mean? It is known that social structure changes continually. A person is a unit of society. In that sense birth and death of a person is also a change in social structure. Consequently, were talking about peculiar types of transformations in society. Skocpol wrote that the changes in society are attend by class uprisings. The fact that two events in society took place at the same time doesn’t mean that one is a result of another one. In contrast with her idea I can state that the social changes happened during social revolutions are definitely the outcomes of insurrection. The nature of a social revolution can be best evaluated by the outcomes which are accomplished immediately after an insurgency by downtrodden class below. For instance, the nature of the French revolution can be best estimated by process befall after the overthrow of the king. However, it is possible to discuss the upheavals of the downtrodden classes, but also about counter-revolutionary upheavals. Symbolically, we can call them rebellions. Best example is the rebellion of Franco, as result of which a civil war has begun in Spain. Consequently, I can claim that the upheavals of the downtrodden are the inherentsegment of a social revolution. Another point regarding social revolutions which wasn’t clarified in the article is about achievement of ultimate goal. Should the notion revolution be used for the instances when the downtrodden are finally nullified, or are not able to hold on to the power? Was 1905 events a revolution if to take into account that resistance of revolution was broken and it didn’t manage to accomplish its goals? Skocpol considers political revolutions different from social revolutions.As an outcome of the latter, the form of the government ( and the government itself) is changed but the social structure and the property relations remains intact. Actually, political revolutions even doesn’t fit the term â€Å"revolution† from Skocpol’s perspective. As a conclusion of article we can define social revolutions as: a) an outcome , but also an origin of a scientific revolution, b) entails qualitative and quantitative transformations which become inalterable, c ) the downtrodden class can try to make changes any times before succeeding, d) representatives of this class come to government, e) social revolution continues in the consequent transformations in society. Terrorism as another widespread form of political violence can be analysed and also defined in different contexts such as religion, war, crime an etc. Some aspects of terrorism are going to stay outside of the outlook you used to study this term. I focused on the M.Chrenshaw’s article and can say that I appreciate the outlook she used in her article to describe the causes of terrorism. The main perceptible and important moment is that she didn’t used â€Å"populist reasoning† , like education level of terrorists or their physiological status, for justifying her arguments which I think makes her article a high-quality paper. But I still want to challenge some points she made regarding the causes of terrorism. Chrenshaw took modernization and grievance as one of the origins of this form of political violence. Modernization as a precondition can be taken as a factor only in states with less developed and conservative societies with stereotypes and taboos where new technological innovations are being impose by globalization wave. Conservative people has some distrust to new lifestyle, policies and don’t want to give up their traditional life. But I don’t agree with the statement, in a sense that, Chernhaw missed intervening variable .It is not modernization itself causes terrorism, rather it is just content of human character to resist to transformations and adjust to new way of life. That’s why revolutions which are rapid changes in social structure preceded with terror either by state in order to impose changes on people or by group of people for stopping that change. Even reactionary changes can lead to revolution. In other sense, revolution is a good condition for terrorism to rise. The article publish in Foreign Affairs journal states that After Tunisian uprising , which usually depicted as revolution( but just a political revolution according to Skocpols definition) , al Qaeda got greater operational freedom of action, its followers probably will try to stir up and benefit from new uprisings in order to fight for their political goals. (Byman, 2011). The similar trends are noticed in all places where revolution happened. As a direct condition for terrorisms grievance is very important an I think that it is the factor which is a condition for other direct causes to emerge .Grievance can be conceptualized as a real or assumed wrong or other cause for discontent or protest. I appreciate Crenshaw’s argument about grievance and want to develop it more, that terrorists are driven by grievances about international political issues within particular regions and the world. They nourish a radical will to sacrifice innocent civilians because they ardently dream to expose their feelings and the only way of realizing them is terrorism.Off course, there can be various reasons why people nurse grievance. Some people are religious, some are nationalistic ad etc. Most probably â€Å" popular reasons† described as causes of terrorism such as education and poverty level therefore is not sufficient to explain the motives of terrorism.There isn’t any concrete formula of grievance as in different soci eties there are people who are ready to devote his life to some goals. If to exclude one origin of grievance, many other factors will serve as an origin to nurse grievance in a violent way.That’s why it is hardly possible to prevent the emergence of grievance but is possible to prevent terrorism by fighting against institutionalized terrorist groups. Because terror institution is a safe environment where grievance can be directed to violence path while that radical feeling can be used in favour of humankind as well. But what about variables like poverty and lack of education – which are the explanations often articulated by mass media and politicians? In reality more highly educated people are those who are aware of their rights and freedoms and persistent enough to fight for their political intentions to be carried out. For instance, results from public opinion polls on support for attacks against Israeli targets conducted in the West Bank and Gaza Strip indicate that support for violent attacks does not decrease among those with higher education and higher living standards. (Krueger, Alan B. Jitka Maleckova., 2003)High education level in the country promises many favourable things for its people, but analysis of the facts suggests that it doesn’t bring about complete consensus and welfare in a society.If we want to look at the terrorism from the â€Å"window of education† we should concentrate on its content, rather than merely educational level of the country. Terrorism and Revolution also other forms of political violence don’t have clear border by which we can easily identify them. Because all this terms are socially contracted. For example, Babek for Azerbaijanis is a hero, but for Arabs he was just a rebel, for Italians Juli Sezar is a hero but for French people he is an enemy conquer, Attila for Turks is a great hero but for Europeans he is a wild , cruel barbarian king who occupied their territory, English troops in Baku in early 20th century were considered as enemies during Soviet times , but friends after independence . The same is true for terrorism. For someone somebody can be a terrorist, for another one he can be a fighter for freedom. This socially constructed character of political violence makes it difficult to define and its analysis depends on the context. Bibliography Byman, D. (2011). Terrorism After the Revolutions.. Foreign Affairs. Krueger, Alan B. Jitka Maleckova. (2003). Education, Poverty And Terrorism: Is There A Causal Connection?. Journal of Economic Perspectives.

Cincinnati Subs Essay

Cincinnati Super Subs employee makeup is mostly young students in college and in high school; management has indicated that the chain has experienced â€Å"below average profitability over the past 18 months† (McShane & Von Glinow, 2013, p. 156). The below average profitability is linked to the increase of food wastage, management has taken steps to address the issue from reduction and elimination of food allowance accounts to the increased visual scrutiny given workers. The changes made by management were only successful for a few months, after the managers reduced their time in daily operations the amount of food wastage began to increase. To reduce food wastage management must have a presence in daily operations at the sub chain, create and enforce punishments for violations, set goals and create rewards for the reduction in food wastage. Indications of Problems at Cincinnati Super Subs ​Food wastage at Cincinnati Super Subs is a huge problem that has resulted in the reduction of monthly bonuses given to management. The staff at the chain complains about the amount or lack of food allowances given, this would prompt employees to â€Å"help themselves to food and drinks when the managers aren’t around† (McShane & Von Glinow, 2013, p. 156). The reduction in profitability over the past 18 months at stores has indicated the levels of food wastage have significantly impacted management employee relations and overall costs at the chain. The importance of reducing food wastage is not realized by non-management staff, they feel that the amount of food/drinks given away or eaten isn’t a significant amount of profits. Corrective actions taken against employees have reduced staff levels as some employees have quit and warned others about seeking employment at Cincinnati Super Subs. Management failed to accurately identify and corrects the causes of food wastage, and in the process caused employee dissatisfaction.

Punjabi Woman: a Momentum Journey from Dark to Dawn Essay

Punjab is the home of Mata Kaushalia and Mata Sita, the self effacing wives and mothers who would not thwart a commitment made by their husbands to a rival, even when that would make their own life an unmitigated agony. The role of Punjabi women as commandos in the battle-fields is no less glorious. Sada Kaur and Rani Sahib Kaur is remembered as one of the greatest generals of her time even in the Afghan records those have successfully defended their kingdom against the attacks of the Marathas, Afghans and European adventurers and chased them away from the battlefield. This shows the women of Punjab had an equal share in the re-building of India. Through Kuka, Nirankari, Arya Samaj, Dev Samaj, Congress and Akali movements, the women of Punjab has played an equally commendable role in the freedom struggle against the Britishers. This article is an effort to put a light on the hardships of the Punjabi women that how they have stood shoulder to shoulder with their men in war and in peace and how they have crossed their journey from dark to dawn. They gave up the pleasures of a princely home to fight for the independence of India., acquired the prominent places in the Indian administration, some became the first Health Minister of India and some of them became commanders of the Rani Jhansi Regiment of the Indian National Army, and gave her life while fighting for India’s independence in Assam. Now they have grown from their hard times and today the enlighten women paved the way for them to adopt new professions especially in the field of law, medicine and teaching and existed as a New Woman with New Spirit __________ â€Å"Punjabi Woman: A Momentum Journey from Dark to Dawn† Miss. Ritu Assistant professor in Laws , KCL Institutes of Laws, Jalandhar. â€Å"Women have great talent, but no genius for they always remain subjective,† said Schopenhauer in â€Å"World as Will and Idea†. Greek philosophers thought a â€Å"woman is an unfinished man left standing at a lower step in the scale of development. The male is by nature superior and female inferior. The one is the ruler and the other ruled. Woman is weak of will and, therefore incapable of independence of character and position.† Such prejudices prevail even today. On the threshold of a new millennium the status of woman is still to be elevated to that of man. The position and status of women varied from time to time in the different societies. The early Vedic times of the ancient period were free from many of the social evils that harmed the Indian society in the later eras. At that time women were assigned high status in the society. But during the post-vedic period, women lost that status which she once enjoyed in society. She became a subject of protection and treated as a second class citizen. In the great Indian mythology of Mahabharat the heroes of the legend, the Pandavas, lost their wife Draupadi in a card game! She was offered after their other valuables, like gold and land, had been lost in the gambling game. Against this backdrop it is significant that Sikhism, one of the world’s youngest religions, accorded women complete equality with men in all spheres of life. Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469-1539), founder of the Sikh religion made Sikhism conform to enlightened, simple, practical, progressive and humane ideals right from its inception. Guru Nanak Dev Ji understood and appreciated the unifying role of women in society and worked for their emancipation. Sikh scriptures categorically state that man and woman together make society a composite and well balanced whole and should not be viewed as a threat to one another. Women as multifaceted personalities had a significant role to play in society. â€Å"Then why call her evil from whom are great men born, And without woman none could exist The eternal Lord is the only one, O Nanak Who depends not on woman?† (Guru Granth Sahib, P. 473) Such thinking was revolutionary and far ahead of the times. Bibi Nanaki, the elder sister of Guru Nanak, was a perfect example. The Guru was especially close to her and regarded her as his inspiration and mentor. Nanaki had implicit faith in her brother’s ideology and encouraged him in his life’s mission and became the first person to be initiated into Sikhism by Guru Nanak. Guru Nanak’s ideals were given a practical shape and consolidated by Guru Amar Das (1479 – 1574), the third Sikh Guru. He was a great champion of women’s rights who based his concepts on complete gender equality and specified norms for ameliorating the status of women in medieval India. Guru Amar Das stopped contemptuous references to women as mere child-bearing machines. â€Å"Blessed is the woman who creates life†, he wrote in the Granth Sahib. During his pontifications, he made sure women were provided opportunities to lead more meaningful lives which enabled them to actively participate in social and religious affairs. For the propagation of the faith’s ideology, he created twenty two administrative units called manjis or parishes. Of these four were headed by women – which were unheard of in those times. In status these four women were equal to modern Bishops because each enjoyed full economic and decision-making powers within her parish or manji. During the medieval age, condition of women was again degrading. Muslim attacks made people to protect their ladies and compelled them to shut the weaker sex behind the four walls of the houses. Purdah system, polygamy, child marriage and other evils started creeping into the society which affected the condition of women. But still during that time many socio-religious movements like Sufism and Bhakti movement tried to emancipate women. The Sikh Gurus and their great ladies became social reformers, acknowledged the importance of woman and voiced their opinion against the prejudices of society like child marriage, sati system, purdah, enforced widowhood and others. With the creation of Khalsa on the Baisakhi day of 1699 by Guru Gobind Singh ji, Sikhism underwent a major transformation. The Khalsa was created to instill a fresh spirit of courage and confidence among the Guru’s followers. Here again women were an integral part of the celebrations. At the time of taking Amrit a man was given the name â€Å"Singh† (lion) and women added â€Å"Kaur† (princess) to their names. The suffix â€Å"Kaur† is of immense significance as a woman was recognised as an individual who need not take her husband’s name after marriage. She could use the word â€Å"Kaur† after her name from birth to death. The word ‘Kaur† is derived from the word â€Å"kanwar† – the son of a king. This empowers Sikh women, Apart from equality in socio-religious affairs, could participate in political matters as well, including leading an army into battle. This gave women in Sikhism a sense of enormous self-confidence. Guru Gobind Singh’s widow Mata Sundari played a key role in Sikh history for forty momentous years. She issued Hukamnamas (decrees) to the Khalsa giving directions at a critical juncture and successfully guided the destiny of the Sikh against both the Afghan invaders and various claimants to the â€Å"Guruship†. Rani Sada Kaur, the brave mother-in-law of Maharaja Ranjit Singh is aptly described as a first woman commander-in-chief. She became a young widow when her husband was killed in battle. She used this crisis to transform herself into a woman-warrior, donning a high turban and battlefield garb with full weaponry. She commanded numerous battles and eventually laid the foundation for the Sikh empire. Rani Jinda, married to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the mother of Dalip Singh, the ruler of Lahore kingdom, was the brain behind the rising of 1848-49 against the British authorities. She was known for her intelligence and intrepid spirit, Jindan was one of the few persons who was intensely disliked and also feared by the British. She was the first female freedom fighter in the struggle to oust the British from India. After the annexation of Punjab by the Britishers in 1849, various changes occurred in the modern era of the Punjab. It was the period where on the one hand a tuff struggle for freedom was on the peak and on the other a concerted effort was also made to form a new woman. The Board of Administration was formed by the Britishers and they started working for their vested interests which in return had some positive impact on the society of Punjab. Some socio-religious reform movements like Singh Sabha, Namdhari, Arya Samaj, Kukas and others began to develop in Punjab during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and played a significant role in the history of Punjab. They raised voice for women emancipation. They all fought against social evils like sati system, female infanticide, child marriage, purdah system, widowhood, polygamy, prejudices against female education and many more. These social reformers opened various schools, colleges, gurukuls for girls in the different parts of Punjab. Most of the writings of the missionaries, colonial administrators or social reformers were the narrative of women’s slow but progressive march towards modernity following a period of stagnation. These accounts gave importance to women’s biological differences; specification of their nature, the role played by them and categorized them into single strata irrespective of their class, caste and hierarchies of their age. A concerted effort was made by the vernacular press especially magazines, journals and newspapers through their editorials, articles, essays and others to motivate and encourage women who were having a segregated existence in the society. Female education was given importance and stress was laid on the domestic household work for girls in the early decades of 1900s. A new woman-educated, free from the shackle of purdah, accomplished in domestic skills, devoted to the husband and family, an intelligent companion, an ideal mother, producer and nurturer of a strong masculine race and custodian of tradition, was portrayed. Rich and higher classes wanted to educate their girls as the education became eligibility for their marriages, on the other hand, the poor and middle class people needed bread winners for their family. The journey from education to occupation by the girls in Punjab was crossed. The educational experiments of the government and reformers produced a â€Å"new woman† with interests that were beyond the household. The main objectives of their associations was to make society evil free and gave special attention to the female upliftment. The Chief Khalsa Diwan of Amritsar was established in 1902 to promote the spiritual, intellectual, moral, social, educational and economic welfare of the people and the girls of orphanage were sent to different schools in Punjab for getting education. The Central Vidwa Ashram for the welfare of widows was also established where they were imparted technical and vocational education. The Sikh Educational Conferences were also conducted annually by the Diwan from 1908. From 1908 to 1947, thirty three sessions of the conference were held and all the issues dealing with female education were regularly discussed. The royal women of the different princely states like Nabha, Patiala, Jind and others were the patrons of the conference. These conferences made women of Punjab to come forward and they began to communicate with their counterparts outside their families and local communities. These later became a platform for the women to participate in public life and the freedom struggle for India. The entry of Mahatma Gandhi and the Jallianawala Bagh tragedy of 1919 made women of Punjab to directly participate in the non-cooperation Movement of 1920-22. They held the meetings, led the processions, boycotted foreign goods, adopted the slogan of swadeshi and indulged in the picketing of foreign cloth shops and liquor shops. Sarla Devi Chaudhrani, Parvati Devi of Kamalia, Puran Devi, Gauran Devi, Mrs. Duni Chand, Kumari Lajjavati, Lado RaniZutzhi were the few names who participated in the movement of 1920-22. The participation of 1920-22 was a sort of training programme for the future Satyagraha programmes of 1930-34 and 1940-42.Women’s participation in Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-32 differed quantitatively and qualitatively from their involvement in the early 1920s and won them a place in history. As the Dandi March was initiated by Gandhi in 1930, women of Punjab inaugurated the movement by taking out processions, prabhat pheris and holding meetings. Regular processions were led by women like in Lahore the life and soul of the movement was Lado Rani Zutshi, Parvati Devi,Kartar Kaur, Atma Devi and many others. As the women were participating in all these activities of the campaign, the government also started arresting these women participants. In the year 1932,that is, in the mid of the movement, the number of women convictions in Punjab was gradually increasing and on average ten women were convicted every month. Thus, it was the women’s organizations and networks , developed between 1925 and 1930, that laid the ground work for their positive reaction to Gandhi’s call. The public participation of the women gained momentum. The All India Women’s Conference which was first organized in 1927 at Poona. The women of Punjab also participated in the twenty sessions of the conference from 1927-47. The participation was so important that one of the sessions of the conference was held at Lahore in 1931and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur belonging to the royal family of Kapurthala was a very active participant from Punjab in the conference. She was one of Gandhi’s closest lieutenants and took a leading part in protest marches which were subjected to ruthless lathi charges in Quit India Movement of 1942. The conference was also presided once by a Muslim lady of Punjab – Lady Abdul Qadir of Lahore in 1933. Sarla Devi Chaudharani also represented Punjab and initiated various resolutions during the period of freedom movement in India. The women from Punjab also participated in some of the sessions of Indian National Congress and went to the different ve nues of the sessions. Women of other provinces also came to Punjab to enlighten their fellow sisters like Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Muthu lakshmi Reddi and others. The active women were even appointed as parliamentary secretaries and were elected to the Punjab Legislative Council. Shrimati Lekhawati Jain (the first elected lady member of the Punjab Legislative Council), Mrs. Jahahara Shah Nawaz, Mrs. Duni Chand,Shrimati Raghbir Kaur were the few other elected members. The most important consequence of this public participation was that it cleared the way for the women of Punjab to show presence in the nationalist movement of India. Before the last phase of the struggle 1940-47, many of the women in Punjab were members and some were even leaders of the student associations (Lado Rani Zutshi in Lahore), and other political movements. Today, the 21st century continued to witness Punjabi women in the forefront in different spheres, especially in India’s independence movement. Some other outstanding women freedom fighters of Punjab were Gulab Kaur, Kishan Kaur, Amar Kaur, Harnam Kaur, Dilip Kaur and Kartar Kaur. Contemporary Punjabi women are making a mark all over the world as academicians, administrators, entrepreneurs, politicians, doctors, poets and painters. An important aspect of the rights conferred on women in the Sikh faith was that they did not have to fight for their rightful place in Sikh society: they were given their due voluntarily because of the enlightened ideals of the Gurus. In this way, the Punjabi women have proved that they are made of sterner stuff. They toiled, they fought, and they sacrificed. They believed in what they did. Indian history has recorded the astonishing vitality and matchless deeds of the daring daughters of India especially the Punjab, who continue to serve the country in fields almost unknown in the past. REFERENCES: * Geraldine Forbes, Women in Colonial India: Essays on Politics, Medicine and Historiography, New Delhi, Chronicle Books, 2005, * Aparna Basu, â€Å"The Role of Women in the Indian Struggle for Freedom in B.R. Nanda (ed), Indian Women : From Purdah to Modernity * Manju Verma, The Role of Women in the Freedom Movement in Punjab. * The Working Women and Popular Movements in Bengal, Calcutta, K.P. Bagehi and Co.: P.Custers, 1987. * â€Å"Traditional Symbols and New Roles, The Women’s Movement in India†, in M.S.A. Rao (ed.), SocialMovements in India, Vol.II, Delhi, Manohar, and 1982, â€Å"From Purdah to Politics; the Social Feminism of the All India Women’s Organizations†, in Hanna Papanek and Gail Minault, 1982, Separate Worlds, Delhi, Chanakya Publications. * Chanana, K., â€Å"Social Change or Social Reform: The Education of Women in Pre-Independence India†, in Chanana (ed.). * Jaspreet Singh, â€Å"Style of the Lion: The Sikhs† and â€Å"A Glimpse of the Sikh†.

Guanaco Facts (Lama guanicoe)

The gaunaco (Lama guanicoe) is a South American camelid and the wild ancestor of the llama. The animal gets its name from the Quechua word huanaco. Fast Facts: Guanaco Scientific Name: Lama guanicoeCommon Name: GuanacoBasic Animal Group: MammalSize: 3 feet 3 inches - 3 feet 11 inches at the shoulderWeight: 200-310 poundsLifespan: 15-20 yearsDiet: HerbivoreHabitat: South AmericaPopulation: Over 1 millionConservation Status: Least Concern Description Guanacos are smaller than llamas but larger than alpacas and their wild counterparts—vicuà ±as. Male guanacos are larger than females. The average adult stands 3 feet 3 inches to 3 feet 11 inches tall at the shoulder, and weighs between 200 and 310 pounds. While llamas and alpacas come in many colors and coat patterns, guanacos range from light to dark brown, with gray faces and white bellies. The coat is double-layered and thickened around the neck to protect against predator bites. Guanacos have split upper lips, two padded toes on each foot, and small, straight ears. Guanacos are adapted to live at high elevations. They have large hearts for their body size. Their blood contains about four times more hemoglobin per unit volume than a humans. Habitat and Distribution Guanacos are native to South America. They are found in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. A small population lives in Paraguay and on the Falkland Islands. Guanacos can survive in extremely harsh environments. They inhabit mountains, steppes, scrublands, and deserts. Guanco range in South America. Udo Schrà ¶ter / Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Diet Guanacos are herbivores that eat grasses, shrubs, lichens, succulents, cacti, and flowers. They have three-chambered stomachs that help them extract nutrients. Guanacos can live without water for extended periods. Some live in the Atacama Desert, where it might not rain for 50 years. The guanacos get water from their diet of cacti and lichens, which absorb water from fog. Pumas and foxes are the guanacos primary predators, aside from humans. Behavior Some populations are sedentary, while others are migratory. Guanacos form three types of social groups. There are family groups, consisting of a single dominant male, females, and their young. When males reach one year of age, they are expelled from the family group and are solitary. Solitary males eventually band together to form small groups. Guanacos communicate using a variety of sounds. They basically laugh in the face of danger, emitting a short laugh-like bleat to alert the herd. They can spit a distance up to six feet when threatened. Because they live in areas that offer little cover from danger, guanacos have evolved to be excellent swimmers and runners. A guanaco can run up to 35 miles per hour. Reproduction and Offspring Mating occurs between November and February, which is summer in South America. Males fight to establish dominance, frequently biting each others feet. Gestation lasts eleven and a half months, resulting in the birth of a single young, which is called a chulengo. Chulengos can walk within five minutes of birth. Females remain with their group, while males are expelled before the next breeding season. Only around 30% of chulengos reach maturity. The average lifespan of a guanaco is 15 to 20 years, but they may live up to 25 years. Guanaco and chulengo. Mint Images/ Art Wolfe / Getty Images Conservation Status The IUCN classifies the guanaco conservation status as least concern. The population is estimated to range between 1.5 to 2.2 million animals and is increasing. However, this is still only 3-7% of the guanaco population before Europeans arrived in South America. The population is severely fragmented. Guanacos are threatened by habitat fragmentation, competition from ranching, habitat destruction, human development, invasive species, diseases, climate change, and natural disasters, such as volcanoes and droughts. Guanacos and Humans While protected, guanacos are hunted for meat and fur. Some are killed by sheep herders, either because they are seen as competition or for fear of transmissible diseases. The fur is sometimes sold as a substitute for red fox fur. A few hundred guanacos are kept in zoos and private herds. Sources Baldi, R.B., Acebes, P., Cuà ©llar, E., Funes, M., Hoces, D., Puig, S. Franklin, W.L. Lama guanicoe. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T11186A18540211. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T11186A18540211.enFranklin, William L. and Melissa M. Grigione. The enigma of guanacos in the Falkland Islands: the legacy of John Hamilton. Journal of Biogeography. 32 (4): 661–675. March 10, 2005. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2004.01220.xStahl, Peter W. Animal Domestication in South America. In Silverman, Helaine; Isbell, William (eds.). Handbook of South American Archaeology. Springer. pp. 121–130. April 4, 2008. ISBN 9780387752280.Wheeler, Dr Jane; Kadwell, Miranda; Fernandez, Matilde; Stanley, Helen F.; Baldi, Ricardo; Rosadio, Raul; Bruford, Michael W. Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1485): 2575–2584. December 2001. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1774